Men will never cease from toil and misery by day and night

From Peter Jones' column, Ancient & Modern in The Spectator, August 7th, 2010.

The 7th century bc Greek farmer-poet Hesiod laid down the marker when he lamented that he lived in the age of iron, when men 'will never cease from toil and misery by day and night'. The reason is that, in the pre-industrial ancient world, there were, effectively, no such things as 'jobs'. Virtually everyone, bar the rich, lived off the soil. So 'work' was not a matter of choice. If you did not work, you died, though an epitaph highlighted the benefits: sweet repose, no fear of starvation, permanent, rent-free accommodation - so never in debt! Popular morality rammed home the point. Aesop contrasted the ant who worked to prepare for the winter with the grasshopper who sang the summer away and paid the price.

Further, if you did work for a wage, you would be working for others. That implied you could not stand on your own two feet. You were dependent on someone else, i.e. no longer free. It was as if you were the lowest of the low - a slave. In other words, you were not regarded as a free man, freely and proudly selling your labour: you were in fact selling your person. Better to see yourself as a noble, hard-working, self-sufficient farmer - an image Romans keenly polished - than that.

A Roman word for 'work' makes the point with a terrible precision: negotium (cf. negotiate), from nego 'I deny' and otium 'leisure'. Far from being dignified or positive, work was a denial of everything man longed for - leisure to enjoy himself as he chose.